footnote143
Negative coefficient values favor the intervention group.
Play and Learning Strategies (PALS)
Entries in this row combine information across all versions of PALS. Only PALS Infant meets HHS criteria for an evidence-based home visiting model. Some other versions of PALS have at least one manuscript about a high- or moderate-quality impact study, but no version of the model other than PALS Infant meets HHS criteria for an evidence-based home visiting model.
Model effectiveness research report last updated: 2019
Effects shown in research & outcome measure details
Child development and school readiness
Findings rated high
271
PALS Toddler/Preschooler
Show findings details
| Outcome measure | Effect | Follow-up timing | Sample | Sample size | Intervention group | Comparison group | Group difference | Effect size | Statistical significance | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PPVT-III receptive vocabulary | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS II | 166 mother/child dyads | growth curve coefficient = -0.37 | Not applicable | Not reported | Study reported = 0.36 | Statistically significant, p < .05 | |
| PLS: auditory comprehension | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS II | 166 mother/child dyads | growth curve coefficient = -1.56 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05 | |
| PLS: expressive comprehension | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS II | 166 mother/child dyads | growth curve coefficient = -0.92 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05 | |
| Cooperation | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS II | 166 mother/child dyads | growth curve coefficient = -0.38 | Not applicable | Not reported | Study reported = 0.30 | Statistically significant, p = .04 | footnote143Negative coefficient values favor the intervention group. |
| Coordinating attention and words | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS II | 166 mother/child dyads | growth curve coefficient = 0.09 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05 | |
| Positive affect (of child with mother) | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS II | 166 mother/child dyads | growth curve coefficient = 0.17 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05 | |
| Social engagement | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS II | 166 mother/child dyads | growth curve coefficient = -0.44 | Not applicable | Not reported | Study reported = 0.32 | Statistically significant, p < .01 | footnote143Negative coefficient values favor the intervention group. |
| Use of words | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS II | 166 mother/child dyads | growth curve coefficient = -0.42 | Not applicable | Not reported | Study reported = 0.37 | Statistically significant, p < .01 | footnote143Negative coefficient values favor the intervention group. |
Show outcome measure summary
| Outcome measure | Outcome measure description | Collection method | Properties | Operations links |
|---|---|---|---|---|
PPVT-III receptive vocabulary |
The PPVT -III assesses individual's receptive language skill. Raw scores were used in the analysis. |
Child assessment |
Not reported by author |
|
PLS: auditory comprehension |
The PLS assesses receptive and expressive language development. |
Child assessment |
Not reported by author |
|
PLS: expressive comprehension |
The PLS assesses receptive and expressive language development. |
Child assessment |
Not reported by author |
|
Cooperation |
The frequency with which the child attempted to respond to his/her mother's request for an action or verbalization. |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.62 |
|
Coordinating attention and words |
The frequency with which the child was able to direct his/her mother's attention to an object using words. |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.68 |
|
Positive affect (of child with mother) |
The frequency with which the child displayed smiles or laughter during the interaction with his/her mother. |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.85 |
|
Social engagement |
The degree to which the child tried to positively engage his/her mother using verbal and non-verbal communication. The interaction was coded on a 5-point scale. |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.65 |
|
Use of words |
The frequency with which the child communicated verbally with his/her mother during the interaction. Communication included single utterance sound, babbling with sentence like intonation, word approximation-single words, two- to three-word phrases, four- to five-word phrases, and six or more word phrases. |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.68 |
271
PALS Toddler/Preschooler
Show findings details
| Outcome measure | Effect | Follow-up timing | Sample | Sample size | Intervention group | Comparison group | Group difference | Effect size | Statistical significance | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Behavioral responses | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS II | 166 mother/child dyads | Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = -0.07 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p = 0.28 | |
| Comments | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS II | 166 mother/child dyads | Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = 0.12 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p = 0.10 | |
| Coordination of gestures and verbalizations | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS II | 166 mother/child dyads | Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = -0.14 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Statistically significant, p < .01 | |
| Engagement in activity | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS II | 166 mother/child dyads | Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = 0.08 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Statistically significant, p = .04 | footnote146Positive coefficient values favors the comparison group. |
| Questions and requests | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS II | 166 mother/child dyads | Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = -0.57 | Not applicable | Not reported | Study reported = 0.16 | Statistically significant, p = .01 | footnote143Negative coefficient values favor the intervention group. |
| Verbal responses | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS II | 166 mother/child dyads | Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = -0.17 | Not applicable | Not reported | Study reported = 0.30 | Not statistically significant, p = 0.06 |
Show outcome measure summary
| Outcome measure | Outcome measure description | Collection method | Properties | Operations links |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Behavioral responses |
Frequency of child's behavioral responses to maternal requests. The responses were coded as (1) ignore/refuse, (2) passive or incorrect attempt, or (3) correct response. |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.81 |
|
Coordination of gestures and verbalizations |
Whether or not children engaged in nonverbal behaviors indicating recognition of appropriate book reading activities in conjunction with verbal responses. |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.78 |
|
Engagement in activity |
The amount of time in which a child actively participated in the book reading activity. |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.78 |
|
Questions and requests |
The frequency with which the child requested his/her mother identify a picture or asked his/her mother a more sophisticated question such as, "What is he doing?" |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.77 |
|
Verbal responses |
Frequency of child's verbal responses to maternal requests. The responses were coded as (1) attempt to respond verbally but incorrect, (2) correct verbal response, or (3) more complex verbalization including explanations, excuses, and/or alternatives. |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.78 |
272
PALS Infant + Toddler/Preschooler
Show findings details
| Outcome measure | Effect | Follow-up timing | Sample | Sample size | Intervention group | Comparison group | Group difference | Effect size | Statistical significance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PPVT-III receptive vocabulary | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS I and PALS II | 166 mother/child dyads | growth curve coefficient = 0.28 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05 |
| PLS: auditory comprehension | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS I and PALS II | 166 mother/child dyads | growth curve coefficient = 0.94 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05 |
| PLS: expressive comprehension | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS I and PALS II | 166 mother/child dyads | growth curve coefficient = -0.30 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05 |
| Cooperation | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS I and PALS II | 166 mother/child dyads | growth curve coefficient = 0.21 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05 |
| Coordinating attention and words | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS I and PALS II | 166 mother/child dyads | growth curve coefficient = -0.13 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05 |
| Positive affect (of child with mother) | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS I and PALS II | 166 mother/child dyads | growth curve coefficient = 0.19 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05 |
| Social engagement | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS I and PALS II | 166 mother/child dyads | growth curve coefficient = 0.25 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05 |
| Use of words | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS I and PALS II | 166 mother/child dyads | growth curve coefficient = 0.15 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05 |
Show outcome measure summary
| Outcome measure | Outcome measure description | Collection method | Properties | Operations links |
|---|---|---|---|---|
PPVT-III receptive vocabulary |
The PPVT -III assesses individual's receptive language skill. Raw scores were used in the analysis. |
Child assessment |
Not reported by author |
|
PLS: auditory comprehension |
The PLS assesses receptive and expressive language development. |
Child assessment |
Not reported by author |
|
PLS: expressive comprehension |
The PLS assesses receptive and expressive language development. |
Child assessment |
Not reported by author |
|
Cooperation |
The frequency with which the child attempted to respond to his/her mother's request for an action or verbalization. |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.62 |
|
Coordinating attention and words |
The frequency with which the child was able to direct his/her mother's attention to an object using words. |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.68 |
|
Positive affect (of child with mother) |
The frequency with which the child displayed smiles or laughter during the interaction with his/her mother. |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.85 |
|
Social engagement |
The degree to which the child tried to positively engage his/her mother using verbal and non-verbal communication. The interaction was coded on a 5-point scale. |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.65 |
|
Use of words |
The frequency with which the child communicated verbally with his/her mother during the interaction. Communication included single utterance sound, babbling with sentence like intonation, word approximation-single words, two- to three-word phrases, four- to five-word phrases, and six or more word phrases. |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.68 |
272
PALS Infant + Toddler/Preschooler
Show findings details
| Outcome measure | Effect | Follow-up timing | Sample | Sample size | Intervention group | Comparison group | Group difference | Effect size | Statistical significance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Behavioral responses | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS I*PALS II | 166 mother/child dyads | Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = -0.26 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p = 0.88 |
| Comments | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS I*PALS II | 166 mother/child dyads | Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = -0.30 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p = 0.42 |
| Coordination of gestures and verbalizations | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS I*PALS II | 166 mother/child dyads | Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = -0.42 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p = 0.50 |
| Engagement in activity | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS I*PALS II | 166 mother/child dyads | Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = -1.68 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p = .63 |
| Questions and requests | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS I*PALS II | 166 mother/child dyads | Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = -0.34 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p = 0.38 |
| Verbal responses | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS I*PALS II | 166 mother/child dyads | Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = -0.04 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p = 0.50 |
Show outcome measure summary
| Outcome measure | Outcome measure description | Collection method | Properties | Operations links |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Behavioral responses |
Frequency of child's behavioral responses to maternal requests. The responses were coded as (1) ignore/refuse, (2) passive or incorrect attempt, or (3) correct response. |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.81 |
|
Coordination of gestures and verbalizations |
Whether or not children engaged in nonverbal behaviors indicating recognition of appropriate book reading activities in conjunction with verbal responses. |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.78 |
|
Engagement in activity |
The amount of time in which a child actively participated in the book reading activity. |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.78 |
|
Questions and requests |
The frequency with which the child requested his/her mother identify a picture or asked his/her mother a more sophisticated question such as, "What is he doing?" |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.77 |
|
Verbal responses |
Frequency of child's verbal responses to maternal requests. The responses were coded as (1) attempt to respond verbally but incorrect, (2) correct verbal response, or (3) more complex verbalization including explanations, excuses, and/or alternatives. |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.78 |
273
Play and Learning Strategies (PALS) Infant
Show findings details
| Outcome measure | Effect | Follow-up timing | Sample | Sample size | Intervention group | Comparison group | Group difference | Effect size | Statistical significance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PPVT-III receptive vocabulary | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS I | 166 mother/child dyads | growth curve coefficient = 0.18 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05 |
| PLS: auditory comprehension | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS I | 166 mother/child dyads | growth curve coefficient = -0.12 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05 |
| PLS: expressive comprehension | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS I | 166 mother/child dyads | growth curve coefficient = 1.21 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05 |
| Cooperation | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS I | 166 mother/child dyads | growth curve coefficient = 0.09 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05 |
| Coordinating attention and words | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS I | 166 mother/child dyads | growth curve coefficient = 0.26 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05 |
| Positive affect (of child with mother) | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS I | 166 mother/child dyads | growth curve coefficient = 0.18 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05 |
| Social engagement | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS I | 166 mother/child dyads | growth curve coefficient = -0.18 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05 |
| Use of words | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS I | 166 mother/child dyads | growth curve coefficient = -0.08 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05 |
Show outcome measure summary
| Outcome measure | Outcome measure description | Collection method | Properties | Operations links |
|---|---|---|---|---|
PPVT-III receptive vocabulary |
The PPVT -III assesses individual's receptive language skill. Raw scores were used in the analysis. |
Child assessment |
Not reported by author |
|
PLS: auditory comprehension |
The PLS assesses receptive and expressive language development. |
Child assessment |
Not reported by author |
|
PLS: expressive comprehension |
The PLS assesses receptive and expressive language development. |
Child assessment |
Not reported by author |
|
Cooperation |
The frequency with which the child attempted to respond to his/her mother's request for an action or verbalization. |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.62 |
|
Coordinating attention and words |
The frequency with which the child was able to direct his/her mother's attention to an object using words. |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.68 |
|
Positive affect (of child with mother) |
The frequency with which the child displayed smiles or laughter during the interaction with his/her mother. |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.85 |
|
Social engagement |
The degree to which the child tried to positively engage his/her mother using verbal and non-verbal communication. The interaction was coded on a 5-point scale. |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.65 |
|
Use of words |
The frequency with which the child communicated verbally with his/her mother during the interaction. Communication included single utterance sound, babbling with sentence like intonation, word approximation-single words, two- to three-word phrases, four- to five-word phrases, and six or more word phrases. |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.68 |
273
Play and Learning Strategies (PALS) Infant
Show findings details
| Outcome measure | Effect | Follow-up timing | Sample | Sample size | Intervention group | Comparison group | Group difference | Effect size | Statistical significance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Behavioral responses | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS I | 166 mother/child dyads | Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = -0.43 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p = 0.28 |
| Comments | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS I | 166 mother/child dyads | Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = -0.12 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p = 0.97 |
| Coordination of gestures and verbalizations | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS I | 166 mother/child dyads | Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = 0.01 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p = 0.95 |
| Engagement in activity | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS I | 166 mother/child dyads | Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = 0.43 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p = 0.81 |
| Questions and requests | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS I | 166 mother/child dyads | Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = 0.01 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p = 0.26 |
| Verbal responses | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
3 months after program end | PALS I | 166 mother/child dyads | Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = -0.07 | Not applicable | Not reported | Not available | Not statistically significant, p = 0.20 |
Show outcome measure summary
| Outcome measure | Outcome measure description | Collection method | Properties | Operations links |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Behavioral responses |
Frequency of child's behavioral responses to maternal requests. The responses were coded as (1) ignore/refuse, (2) passive or incorrect attempt, or (3) correct response. |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.81 |
|
Coordination of gestures and verbalizations |
Whether or not children engaged in nonverbal behaviors indicating recognition of appropriate book reading activities in conjunction with verbal responses. |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.78 |
|
Engagement in activity |
The amount of time in which a child actively participated in the book reading activity. |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.78 |
|
Questions and requests |
The frequency with which the child requested his/her mother identify a picture or asked his/her mother a more sophisticated question such as, "What is he doing?" |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.77 |
|
Verbal responses |
Frequency of child's verbal responses to maternal requests. The responses were coded as (1) attempt to respond verbally but incorrect, (2) correct verbal response, or (3) more complex verbalization including explanations, excuses, and/or alternatives. |
Videotaped observation |
Interrater reliability = 0.78 |
273
Play and Learning Strategies (PALS) Infant
Show findings details
| Outcome measure | Effect | Follow-up timing | Sample | Sample size | Intervention group | Comparison group | Group difference | Effect size | Statistical significance | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Negative Affect (With Examiner) | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
12 months | PALS I vs. DAS | 241 mother/child dyads | Coefficient = -0.07 | Coefficient = 0.28 | Not reported | Study reported = 0.70 | Statistically significant, p < 0.01 | footnote142The p-values are study reported. |
| Social Skills: Cooperation | FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect |
12 months | PALS I vs. DAS | 241 mother/child dyads | Coefficient = 5.56 | Coefficient = 5.16 | Not reported | Study reported = 0.39 | Not statistically significant, p = 0.08 | footnote142The p-values are study reported. |
Show outcome measure summary
| Outcome measure | Outcome measure description | Collection method | Properties | Operations links |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Negative Affect (With Examiner) |
The frequency with which an infant displayed signs of irritation such as whining, fussing, and crying when interacting with the examiner. | Videotaped observation | Interrater reliability = 0.76 |
|
Social Skills: Cooperation |
The frequency with which an infant attempted to respond to his/her mother's request for an action or verbalization. | Videotaped observation | Interrater reliability = 0.62 |