Play and Learning Strategies (PALS)

Entries in this row combine information across all versions of PALS. Only PALS Infant meets HHS criteria for an evidence-based home visiting model. Some other versions of PALS have at least one manuscript about a high- or moderate-quality impact study, but no version of the model other than PALS Infant meets HHS criteria for an evidence-based home visiting model.

Model effectiveness research report last updated: 2019

Effects shown in research & outcome measure details

Positive parenting practices

Findings rated high

Landry, S. H., Smith, K. E., Swank, P. R., & Guttentag, C. (2008). A responsive parenting intervention: The optimal timing across early childhood for impacting maternal behaviors and child outcomes. Developmental Psychology, 44(5), 1335-1353.

PALS Toddler/Preschooler

Show findings details

Outcome measure	Effect	Follow-up timing	Sample	Sample size	Intervention group	Comparison group	Group difference	Effect size	Statistical significance	Notes
Contingent responsiveness	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS II	166 mother/child dyads	growth curve coefficient = -0.52	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05
Maintaining child foci	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS II	166 mother/child dyads	growth curve coefficient = -0.03	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05
Positive affect (of mother with child)	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS II	166 mother/child dyads	growth curve coefficient = 0.15	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05
Redirecting child foci	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS II	166 mother/child dyads	growth curve coefficient = 0.42	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05
Verbal encouragement	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS II	166 mother/child dyads	growth curve coefficient = -0.41	Not applicable	Not reported	Study reported = 0.25	Statistically significant, p =.01	footnote143 Submitted by user on Fri, 03/15/2019 - 14:29 Negative coefficient values favor the intervention group.
Verbal scaffolding	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS II	166 mother/child dyads	growth curve coefficient = -0.13	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05
Warm sensitivity	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS II	166 mother/child dyads	growth curve coefficient = -0.37	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05

Show outcome measure summary

Outcome measure	Outcome measure description	Collection method	Properties
Contingent responsiveness	The degree to which a mother responded promptly and appropriately to her infant's cues, rated on a five-point scale.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.74
Maintaining child foci	The frequency with which the mother's behavior helped to sustain her child's current activity.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.81
Positive affect (of mother with child)	The degree to which the mother smiled and laughed during the interaction, rated on a five-point scale.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.74
Redirecting child foci	The frequency with which the mother's interaction was unrelated to her child's current activity in an attempt to redirect the child's attention.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.77
Verbal encouragement	The frequency with which the mother praised her infant's efforts.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.78
Verbal scaffolding	The frequency with which the mother provided verbal hints and prompts.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.64
Warm sensitivity	The degree to which the mother was warm and sensitive in her interactions with her infant (e.g., accepting of the infant's needs and interests), rated on a five-point scale.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.74

Landry, S. H., Smith, K. E., Swank, P. R., Zucker, T., Crawford, A. D., & Solari, E. F. (2012). The effects of a responsive parenting intervention on parent-child interactions during shared book reading. Developmental Psychology, 48(4), 969–986.

PALS Toddler/Preschooler

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Outcome measure	Effect	Follow-up timing	Sample	Sample size	Intervention group	Comparison group	Group difference	Effect size	Statistical significance
Comments	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS II	166 mother/child dyads	Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = -0.24	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p = 0.98
General verbal support	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS II	166 mother/child dyads	Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = -0.77	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p = 0.96
Language facilitation	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS II	166 mother/child dyads	Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = -0.47	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p = 0.13
Open prompts	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS II	166 mother/child dyads	Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = -0.53	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p = 0.27
Percent time only reading text	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS II	166 mother/child dyads	Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = 0.44	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p = 0.07
Praise and encourage	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS II	166 mother/child dyads	Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = 0.19	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p = 0.46
Responsiveness	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS II	166 mother/child dyads	Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = -0.53	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p = 0.22

Show outcome measure summary

Outcome measure	Outcome measure description	Collection method	Properties
Comments	The frequency with which the child comments on a book. Responses were coded as (1) orients mother's attention without use of label, (2) labels or describes a picture, or (3) makes a connection involving elements of the story.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.76
General verbal support	The frequency with which the mother used hints and prompts to help her child make connections.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.57
Language facilitation	The frequency with which the mother used verbal strategies to facilitate her child's cognitive-linguistic development. These strategies included expansion, assists, and lead-ins.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.68
Open prompts	The frequency with which the mother asked open-ended questions or made requests that required the child to think more generally about what was happening in the story.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.84
Percent time only reading text	The length of time during which the mother just read the text of the book.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.72
Praise and encourage	The frequency with which the mother praised or encouraged her infant's efforts.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.83
Responsiveness	The degree to which the mother responded promptly and appropriately to her infant's cues and expressed enthusiasm during the book reading interaction, rated on a five-point scale from almost always to almost never.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.70

Landry, S. H., Smith, K. E., Swank, P. R., & Guttentag, C. (2008). A responsive parenting intervention: The optimal timing across early childhood for impacting maternal behaviors and child outcomes. Developmental Psychology, 44(5), 1335-1353.

PALS Infant + Toddler/Preschooler

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Outcome measure	Effect	Follow-up timing	Sample	Sample size	Intervention group	Comparison group	Group difference	Effect size	Statistical significance	Notes
Contingent responsiveness	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS I and PALS II	166 mother/child dyads	growth curve coefficient = 0.64	Not applicable	Not reported	Study reported = 0.51	Statistically significant, p = 0.02
Maintaining child foci	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS I and PALS II	166 mother/child dyads	growth curve coefficient = 0.00	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05
Positive affect (of mother with child)	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS I and PALS II	166 mother/child dyads	growth curve coefficient = 0.26	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05
Redirecting child foci	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS I and PALS II	166 mother/child dyads	growth curve coefficient = -0.61	Not applicable	Not reported	Study reported = 0.39	Statistically significant, p = 0.01	footnote145 Submitted by user on Fri, 03/15/2019 - 14:29 Negative coefficient values indicate a favorable outcome.
Verbal encouragement	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS I and PALS II	166 mother/child dyads	growth curve coefficient = -0.08	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05
Verbal scaffolding	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS I and PALS II	166 mother/child dyads	growth curve coefficient = 0.06	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05
Warm sensitivity	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS I and PALS II	166 mother/child dyads	growth curve coefficient = 0.34	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05

Show outcome measure summary

Outcome measure	Outcome measure description	Collection method	Properties
Contingent responsiveness	The degree to which a mother responded promptly and appropriately to her infant's cues, rated on a five-point scale.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.74
Maintaining child foci	The frequency with which the mother's behavior helped to sustain her child's current activity.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.81
Positive affect (of mother with child)	The degree to which the mother smiled and laughed during the interaction, rated on a five-point scale.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.74
Redirecting child foci	The frequency with which the mother's interaction was unrelated to her child's current activity in an attempt to redirect the child's attention.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.77
Verbal encouragement	The frequency with which the mother praised her infant's efforts.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.78
Verbal scaffolding	The frequency with which the mother provided verbal hints and prompts.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.64
Warm sensitivity	The degree to which the mother was warm and sensitive in her interactions with her infant (e.g., accepting of the infant's needs and interests), rated on a five-point scale.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.74

Landry, S. H., Smith, K. E., Swank, P. R., Zucker, T., Crawford, A. D., & Solari, E. F. (2012). The effects of a responsive parenting intervention on parent-child interactions during shared book reading. Developmental Psychology, 48(4), 969–986.

PALS Infant + Toddler/Preschooler

Show findings details

Outcome measure	Effect	Follow-up timing	Sample	Sample size	Intervention group	Comparison group	Group difference	Effect size	Statistical significance
Comments	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS I*PALS II	166 mother/child dyads	Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = -0.14	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p = 0.87
General verbal support	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS I*PALS II	166 mother/child dyads	Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = 0.44	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p = 0.89
Language facilitation	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS I*PALS II	166 mother/child dyads	Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = 0.10	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Statistically significant, p = 0.03
Open prompts	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS I*PALS II	166 mother/child dyads	Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = 0.24	Not applicable	Not reported	Study reported = 0.38	Statistically significant, p = 0.03
Percent time only reading text	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS I*PALS II	166 mother/child dyads	Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = 0.12	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p = 0.26
Praise and encourage	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS I*PALS II	166 mother/child dyads	Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = -0.14	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p > 0.05
Responsiveness	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS I*PALS II	166 mother/child dyads	Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = 0.24	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p = 0.08

Show outcome measure summary

Outcome measure	Outcome measure description	Collection method	Properties
Comments	The frequency with which the child comments on a book. Responses were coded as (1) orients mother's attention without use of label, (2) labels or describes a picture, or (3) makes a connection involving elements of the story.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.76
General verbal support	The frequency with which the mother used hints and prompts to help her child make connections.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.57
Language facilitation	The frequency with which the mother used verbal strategies to facilitate her child's cognitive-linguistic development. These strategies included expansion, assists, and lead-ins.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.68
Open prompts	The frequency with which the mother asked open-ended questions or made requests that required the child to think more generally about what was happening in the story.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.84
Percent time only reading text	The length of time during which the mother just read the text of the book.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.72
Praise and encourage	The frequency with which the mother praised or encouraged her infant's efforts.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.83
Responsiveness	The degree to which the mother responded promptly and appropriately to her infant's cues and expressed enthusiasm during the book reading interaction, rated on a five-point scale from almost always to almost never.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.70

Landry, S. H., Smith, K. E., Swank, P. R., & Guttentag, C. (2008). A responsive parenting intervention: The optimal timing across early childhood for impacting maternal behaviors and child outcomes. Developmental Psychology, 44(5), 1335-1353.

Play and Learning Strategies (PALS) Infant

Show findings details

Outcome measure	Effect	Follow-up timing	Sample	Sample size	Intervention group	Comparison group	Group difference	Effect size	Statistical significance	Notes
Contingent responsiveness	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS I	166 mother/child dyads	growth curve coefficient = -0.51	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05
Maintaining child foci	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS I	166 mother/child dyads	growth curve coefficient = -0.06	Not applicable	Not reported	Study reported = 0.32	Statistically significant, p = 0.04	footnote143 Submitted by user on Fri, 03/15/2019 - 14:29 Negative coefficient values favor the intervention group.
Positive affect (of mother with child)	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS I	166 mother/child dyads	growth curve coefficient = -0.34	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05
Redirecting child foci	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS I	166 mother/child dyads	growth curve coefficient = 0.52	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Statistically significant, p < 0.05	footnote144 Submitted by user on Fri, 03/15/2019 - 14:29 Positive coefficient values indicate an unfavorable outcome.
Verbal encouragement	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS I	166 mother/child dyads	growth curve coefficient = 0.60	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05
Verbal scaffolding	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS I	166 mother/child dyads	growth curve coefficient = 0.10	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p ≥ 0.05
Warm sensitivity	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS I	166 mother/child dyads	growth curve coefficient = -0.35	Not applicable	Not reported	Study reported = 0.29	Statistically significant, p = 0.02	footnote143 Submitted by user on Fri, 03/15/2019 - 14:29 Negative coefficient values favor the intervention group.

Show outcome measure summary

Outcome measure	Outcome measure description	Collection method	Properties
Contingent responsiveness	The degree to which a mother responded promptly and appropriately to her infant's cues, rated on a five-point scale.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.74
Maintaining child foci	The frequency with which the mother's behavior helped to sustain her child's current activity.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.81
Positive affect (of mother with child)	The degree to which the mother smiled and laughed during the interaction, rated on a five-point scale.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.74
Redirecting child foci	The frequency with which the mother's interaction was unrelated to her child's current activity in an attempt to redirect the child's attention.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.77
Verbal encouragement	The frequency with which the mother praised her infant's efforts.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.78
Verbal scaffolding	The frequency with which the mother provided verbal hints and prompts.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.64
Warm sensitivity	The degree to which the mother was warm and sensitive in her interactions with her infant (e.g., accepting of the infant's needs and interests), rated on a five-point scale.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.74

Landry, S. H., Smith, K. E., Swank, P. R., Zucker, T., Crawford, A. D., & Solari, E. F. (2012). The effects of a responsive parenting intervention on parent-child interactions during shared book reading. Developmental Psychology, 48(4), 969–986.

Play and Learning Strategies (PALS) Infant

Show findings details

Outcome measure	Effect	Follow-up timing	Sample	Sample size	Intervention group	Comparison group	Group difference	Effect size	Statistical significance
Comments	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS I	166 mother/child dyads	Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = -0.23	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p = 0.51
General verbal support	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS I	166 mother/child dyads	Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = -0.48	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p = 0.59
Language facilitation	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS I	166 mother/child dyads	Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = -0.11	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p = 0.41
Open prompts	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS I	166 mother/child dyads	Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = 0.02	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p = 0.87
Percent time only reading text	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS I	166 mother/child dyads	Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = 0.30	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p = 0.26
Praise and encourage	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS I	166 mother/child dyads	Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = -0.12	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p = 0.51
Responsiveness	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	3 months after program end	PALS I	166 mother/child dyads	Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) coefficient = 0.02	Not applicable	Not reported	Not available	Not statistically significant, p = 0.35

Show outcome measure summary

Outcome measure	Outcome measure description	Collection method	Properties
Comments	The frequency with which the child comments on a book. Responses were coded as (1) orients mother's attention without use of label, (2) labels or describes a picture, or (3) makes a connection involving elements of the story.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.76
General verbal support	The frequency with which the mother used hints and prompts to help her child make connections.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.57
Language facilitation	The frequency with which the mother used verbal strategies to facilitate her child's cognitive-linguistic development. These strategies included expansion, assists, and lead-ins.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.68
Open prompts	The frequency with which the mother asked open-ended questions or made requests that required the child to think more generally about what was happening in the story.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.84
Percent time only reading text	The length of time during which the mother just read the text of the book.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.72
Praise and encourage	The frequency with which the mother praised or encouraged her infant's efforts.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.83
Responsiveness	The degree to which the mother responded promptly and appropriately to her infant's cues and expressed enthusiasm during the book reading interaction, rated on a five-point scale from almost always to almost never.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.70

Landry, S. H., Smith, K. E., & Swank, P. R. (2006). Responsive parenting: Establishing early foundations for social, communication, and independent problem-solving skills. Developmental Psychology, 42(4), 627-42.

Play and Learning Strategies (PALS) Infant

Show findings details

Outcome measure	Effect	Follow-up timing	Sample	Sample size	Intervention group	Comparison group	Group difference	Effect size	Statistical significance	Notes
Contingent Responsiveness	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	12 months	PALS I vs. DAS	241 mother/child dyads	Coefficient = 0.77	Coefficient = 0.99	Not reported	Study reported = 0.93	Statistically significant, p < 0.01	footnote141 Submitted by user on Fri, 03/15/2019 - 14:29 Lower parameter value indicates a better score. The p-values are study reported.
Harshness of Voice Tone	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	12 months	PALS I vs. DAS	241 mother/child dyads	Coefficient = 0.07	Coefficient = 0.12	Not reported	Study reported = 0.28	Statistically significant, p = 0.02	footnote141 Submitted by user on Fri, 03/15/2019 - 14:29 Lower parameter value indicates a better score. The p-values are study reported.
Labeling Actions	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	12 months	PALS I vs. DAS	241 mother/child dyads	Coefficient = -8.94	Coefficient = -9.20	Not reported	Study reported = 0.63	Statistically significant, p < 0.01	footnote141 Submitted by user on Fri, 03/15/2019 - 14:29 Lower parameter value indicates a better score. The p-values are study reported.
Labeling Objects	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	12 months	PALS I vs. DAS	241 mother/child dyads	Coefficient = -5.47	Coefficient = -5.86	Not reported	Study reported = 0.71	Statistically significant, p < 0.01	footnote141 Submitted by user on Fri, 03/15/2019 - 14:29 Lower parameter value indicates a better score. The p-values are study reported.
Maintaining Infant Foci of Attention	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	12 months	PALS I vs. DAS	241 mother/child dyads	Coefficient = 13.21	Coefficient = 12.40	Not reported	Study reported = 0.36	Not statistically significant, p = 0.08	footnote142 Submitted by user on Fri, 03/15/2019 - 14:29 The p-values are study reported.
Physical Intrusiveness	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	12 months	PALS I vs. DAS	241 mother/child dyads	Coefficient = 0.44	Coefficient = 0.51	Not reported	Study reported = 0.50	Statistically significant, p = 0.01	footnote141 Submitted by user on Fri, 03/15/2019 - 14:29 Lower parameter value indicates a better score. The p-values are study reported.
Redirecting Infant Foci of Attention	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	12 months	PALS I vs. DAS	241 mother/child dyads	Coefficient = 1.14	Coefficient = 1.57	Not reported	Study reported = 1.31	Statistically significant, p < 0.01	footnote141 Submitted by user on Fri, 03/15/2019 - 14:29 Lower parameter value indicates a better score. The p-values are study reported.
Verbal Encouragement	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	12 months	PALS I vs. DAS	241 mother/child dyads	Coefficient = 0.67	Coefficient = 0.24	Not reported	Study reported = 0.71	Statistically significant, p < 0.01	footnote142 Submitted by user on Fri, 03/15/2019 - 14:29 The p-values are study reported.
Verbal Scaffolding	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	12 months	PALS I vs. DAS	241 mother/child dyads	Coefficient = 0.41	Coefficient = -0.08	Not reported	Study reported = 0.79	Statistically significant, p < 0.01	footnote142 Submitted by user on Fri, 03/15/2019 - 14:29 The p-values are study reported.
Warm Sensitivity	FavorableUnfavorable or ambiguousNo Effect	12 months	PALS I vs. DAS	241 mother/child dyads	Coefficient = 0.74	Coefficient = 0.90	Not reported	Study reported = 0.49	Statistically significant, p < 0.01	footnote141 Submitted by user on Fri, 03/15/2019 - 14:29 Lower parameter value indicates a better score. The p-values are study reported.

Show outcome measure summary

Outcome measure	Outcome measure description	Collection method	Properties
Contingent Responsiveness	The degree to which a mother responded promptly and appropriately to her infant's cues was rated on a five-point scale.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.74
Harshness of Voice Tone	The degree to which the mother used a harsh and/or impatient tone with her infant, rated on a five-point scale.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.70
Labeling Actions	The frequency with which a mother provided the specific names of actions during the interaction.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.70 for the labeling one action and 0.75 for the labeling of more than one action
Labeling Objects	The frequency with which a mother provided the specific names of objects during the interaction.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.77 for both the labeling of one object and the labeling of more than one object
Maintaining Infant Foci of Attention	The frequency with which the mother's behavior helped to sustain her child's current activity.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.81
Physical Intrusiveness	The degree of abruptness in physical interactions such as moving the infant, and physical expressions of impatience.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.45
Redirecting Infant Foci of Attention	The frequency with which the mother's interaction was unrelated to her child's current activity in an attempt to redirect the child's attention.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.77
Verbal Encouragement	The frequency with which a mother praised her infant's efforts.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.78
Verbal Scaffolding	The frequency with which a mother provided verbal hints and prompts.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.64
Warm Sensitivity	The degree to which the mother was warm and sensitive in her interactions with her infant (e.g., accepting of the infant's needs and interests), rated on a five-point scale.	Videotaped observation	Interrater reliability = 0.74

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